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The Testicles & Scrotum

Each testis is an endocrine (testosterone) and exocrine (sperm) organ suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cord and enveloped in a concentric sleeve of fascia derived from the abdominal wall.[1][13]

Gray's Anatomy Fig. 1143 — Scrotal layers and a testis exposed by opening the tunica vaginalis.

Gray's Anatomy Fig. 1143 — Scrotal layers and a testis exposed by opening the tunica vaginalis.

Testis — Gross and Surgical Anatomy​

The adult testis is an ovoid organ of approximately 4–5 cm and 15–25 mL[40], suspended in the scrotum with its long axis vertical and slightly tilted forward. A multicenter ultrasound reference-range study of 248 healthy fertile men found a mean volume near 17 mL, with lower reference limits of 12 mL (right) and 11 mL (left) below which a testis is classified as hypotrophic.[32] It is surrounded by a tough fibrous tunica albuginea, which sends septula inward to divide the parenchyma into approximately 250–300 lobules, each housing 1–4 seminiferous tubules.[2] The tubules converge posteriorly at the mediastinum testis (a thickening of the tunica) to form the rete testis, which drains through approximately 10–20 efferent ductules into the caput epididymis.

Tunical layers — the operative plane for hydrocele, torsion, and trauma​

Surrounding the testis, from deep to superficial:

LayerOriginOperative relevance
Tunica albugineaDense fibrous capsule of the testis itselfThe plane of testis-sparing surgery, biopsy, and micro-TESE
Tunica vaginalis — visceral layerLines the tunica albugineaThe tunica-vaginalis space is where hydroceles accumulate
Tunica vaginalis — parietal layerLines the inside of the scrotal wallThe closure / resection plane in hydrocele repair (Jaboulay, Lord, or excisional)
Internal spermatic fasciaTransversalis fasciaSpermatic-cord investment
Cremasteric fascia + cremaster muscleInternal obliqueCremasteric reflex; incised during orchiopexy
External spermatic fasciaExternal oblique aponeurosisSuperficial cord investment
Dartos fasciaScarpa's → Colles' fascia continuumSuperficial hematoma / urinoma / Fournier plane; midline septum of the scrotum
Scrotal skinThin, rugated, hair-bearingSweat glands and hair follicles; site of epidermal inclusion cysts, hidradenitis suppurativa[16]

Spermatic cord contents​

Within the cord, from anterior to posterior:

  • Testicular artery (from aorta)
  • Cremasteric artery (from inferior epigastric)
  • Deferential artery (from inferior vesical)
  • Pampiniform venous plexus. The three arteries are bracketed by the venous plexus.
  • Lymphatics to para-aortic nodes
  • Vas deferens. Posteromedial and palpably firm; the landmark when the surgeon "loses" the cord.
  • Genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve (motor to cremaster; sensory to anterior scrotum)
  • Ilioinguinal nerve (sensory only; runs on the cord, not inside the internal spermatic fascia)
  • Sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic fibers

Vascular Supply and Drainage​

Arterial supply — threefold and redundant​

Three paired arteries perfuse the testis and epididymis, with extensive anastomoses along the cord and at the tunica:[18]

ArteryOriginTerritory
Testicular arteryAbdominal aorta (below the renal arteries)Dominant supply; usually terminates near the upper mediastinum and often divides into upper and lower polar branches
Cremasteric arteryInferior epigastric (external iliac)Cord, cremaster, and lower-pole anastomosis
Deferential arteryInferior vesical (internal iliac)Vas deferens and epididymis; anastomoses at the mediastinum

The cremasteric and deferential supplies are the basis for testicular salvage after testicular-artery injury. The testis can survive ligation of the main testicular artery at the internal ring if the collaterals are intact (a principle exploited in the Fowler–Stephens orchiopexy for high intra-abdominal undescended testes).

Venous drainage — the varicocele anatomy​

Veins emerge from the testis at the mediastinum as the pampiniform plexus and ascend through variable venous channels that usually coalesce into a dominant testicular (gonadal) vein:[19][31]

  • Left testicular vein. Usually drains into the left renal vein.
  • Right testicular vein. Usually drains into the inferior vena cava.
  • Venous valves, competence, duplications and collateral channels vary. One cadaveric series found absent valves in about one-third of left veins at pelvic or lumbar levels; an earlier dissection series described occasional abdominal cross-communication.[19][31]

Three consequences follow:

  1. Left-side predominance of varicoceles reflects the longer venous course and left-renal-vein drainage; renal-vein compression may also contribute. 2.[27] Isolated clinical right varicocele warrants further assessment for abdominal, retroperitoneal or congenital causes; imaging is selected to the clinical setting.[27]
  2. Pampiniform countercurrent heat exchange helps keep the testis cooler than core temperature.[27] Impaired thermoregulation is one proposed contributor to varicocele-associated infertility.[27]

Lymphatic drainage — why orchiectomy is inguinal, not scrotal​

Testicular and intratunical lymph drains with the cord upward to the para-aortic and interaortocaval nodes at the L1–L3 level:[20][21][22]

  • Right testis. Drains primarily to the interaortocaval and precaval nodes.
  • Left testis. Drains primarily to the left para-aortic and preaortic nodes.
  • Scrotal skin. Drains to the superficial inguinal nodes, a completely separate lymphatic territory.

Inguinal, not scrotal, orchiectomy for suspected testicular cancer. Radical inguinal orchiectomy with division of the cord at the internal inguinal ring is the EAU 2026 standard of care , and a scrotal approach should be avoided because it carries a higher local recurrence rate.[26] The EAU TNM lists pT4 as tumor invading the scrotum; the guideline does not address staging or adjuvant treatment after a prior scrotal violation.[26]

Innervation​

  • Autonomic. Testicular nerves travel with the testicular artery from the T10–T11 segments via the celiac and intermesenteric plexuses; sympathetic dominance.
  • Referred pain from testicular pathology is classically to the flank or ipsilateral lower abdomen (T10–T11 dermatome), paralleling ureteric pain.
  • Scrotal sensation. The anterior hemiscrotum is supplied by the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve (L1–L2) and the ilioinguinal nerve (L1); the posterior hemiscrotum by the posterior scrotal nerves from the pudendal (S2–S4). The interscrotal septum is densely innervated, and each hemiscrotum is largely innervated separately, which is the anatomic basis for unilateral scrotal blocks (the septal innervation data come from fetal specimens).[23][24]
  • Post-vasectomy pain and chronic orchialgia are thought to involve ilioinguinal, genitofemoral, and spermatic-cord autonomic fibers. Microsurgical spermatic-cord denervation selectively transects these while preserving vas, testicular artery, and lymphatics. Biopsy-mapping of the spermatic cord in men undergoing denervation for chronic orchialgia found wallerian degeneration concentrated in a reproducible "trifecta" of sites — cremasteric muscle fibers, perivasal tissue and the vasal sheath, and posterior cord lipomatous/perivascular tissue — confirmed by cadaveric dissection; complete denervation addresses all three sites, not only the fibers adjacent to the testicular artery.[33]

Testicular Physiology — Operative Depth Only​

Endocrine function​

Leydig cells in the interstitium produce approximately 3–10 mg of testosterone daily under LH drive, with morning peaks in circulating concentration.[4][5] Intratesticular testosterone is 50–100× circulating levels.

  • Exogenous testosterone suppresses LH and FSH and collapses intratesticular testosterone. This is the mechanism by which TRT produces oligospermia or azoospermia, and the reason fertility counseling must precede its initiation.
  • Recovery of spermatogenesis after stopping exogenous testosterone varies and should not be promised within 3–6 months. Men seeking fertility need individualized evaluation; gonadotropin therapy has a role in selected secondary hypogonadism, while SERMs are off-label with limited evidence in that setting.[28]

Spermatogenesis — counseling numbers​

Spermatogenesis takes approximately 74 days from a committed spermatogonium to spermiation into the tubular lumen; a tissue study of 11 healthy men estimated an additional 3.2 days of epididymal transit, during which sperm mature (0.72 days in the caput, 0.71 in the corpus, and 1.76 in the cauda).[6][7][38][39] Daily sperm production is approximately 45 million per testis, or about 1,000 sperm per second in total.[6] Clinical translations:

  • Post-vasectomy semen analysis is needed to confirm clearance; a first test is commonly scheduled at 8–16 weeks. Ejaculation count alone is unreliable, and alternative contraception is required until the result meets the treating service's clearance criteria.[30]
  • Gonadotoxic exposures (chemotherapy, radiation) damage the stem / differentiating pool; recovery timelines parallel the 74-day cycle plus stem-cell regeneration.
  • Fertility preservation should be offered before potentially gonadotoxic therapy when feasible and desired; it should be coordinated without delaying urgent cancer care.[26]

Blood–testis barrier​

Sertoli–Sertoli tight junctions create a blood–testis barrier (BTB) separating basal from adluminal germ-cell compartments.[3] Antisperm antibodies may follow reproductive-tract injury or obstruction.[3]

Thermoregulation​

Normal testicular temperature is approximately 33°C, 2–4°C below core temperature. Four mechanisms cooperate:[12][14][15][17]

  • Pampiniform plexus. Countercurrent heat exchange (the main mechanism).
  • Cremaster muscle. Retracts the testis toward the body in cold.
  • Dartos muscle. Wrinkles and shortens the scrotal skin in cold; thins and elongates in heat.
  • Scrotal sweating. Thin skin with dense sweat glands dissipates heat.

Elevated scrotal temperature (varicocele, cryptorchidism, chronic heat exposure, sedentary position) is associated with impaired spermatogenesis. Germ-cell apoptosis and BTB disruption have been described as mechanisms, and this is the pathophysiologic rationale for varicocelectomy in infertility.

The Epididymis and Vas Deferens​

The epididymis runs along the posterolateral surface of the testis and has three operatively useful regions:[8][9]

SegmentFunctionClinical corollary
Caput (head)Receives sperm from efferent ductules; initial maturationProximal epididymal segment considered during assessment of obstruction and selected sperm-retrieval procedures
Corpus (body)Primary maturation zone; sperm acquire progressive motility and fertilizing capacitySite of post-infectious (chlamydia, gonorrhea, tuberculosis) stricture
Cauda (tail)Sperm storage in quiescent stateSource of stored ejaculated sperm. After vasectomy, residual sperm in the vas distal to the occlusion persist for weeks

The epididymis terminates as the vas deferens, which ascends through the cord, enters the internal ring, and runs retroperitoneally to the bladder base, joining the seminal-vesicle duct to form the ejaculatory duct (see The Prostate & Seminal Vesicles).

Epididymal sperm maturation is androgen-dependent and is influenced by segment-specific secretions and epididymosomes (epithelial extracellular vesicles delivering cargo to spermatozoa).[10][11] Retrieval site and technique depend on the cause of azoospermia and assisted-reproduction plan.[27]

The Scrotum​

Layers (superficial → deep) — the abdominal-wall homologues​

Scrotal layerAbdominal-wall homologueOperative note
SkinSkinThin, no subcutaneous fat, rugated under dartos tone
Dartos fascia + dartos muscleScarpa's fascia / Colles' fasciaContinuous with the perineum and anterior abdominal wall; the fascial route of Fournier's gangrene spread
External spermatic fasciaExternal oblique aponeurosis
Cremasteric fascia + muscleInternal obliqueCremasteric reflex (L1–L2 genitofemoral)
Internal spermatic fasciaTransversalis fasciaDeepest investment of the cord
Tunica vaginalis (parietal)Parietal peritoneum (processus vaginalis)Site of hydrocele; communicating hydrocele = patent processus vaginalis

Arterial supply​

  • Anterior hemiscrotum. Branches of the external pudendal arteries (from the femoral).
  • Posterior hemiscrotum. Branches of the internal pudendal arteries (from the internal iliac).

This split supports scrotal flap design for reconstruction and explains the robustness of scrotal viability even with extensive debridement.

Dartos-fascia continuity and Fournier's gangrene​

Dartos fascia is continuous superiorly with Scarpa's fascia of the anterior abdominal wall and posteriorly with Colles' (perineal superficial) fascia. Fournier's gangrene can spread along this plane and beyond the initially visible skin changes; the testis is often spared because of its separate arterial supply, but viability of all involved tissues must be assessed during urgent debridement. Viable testes and cord are preserved whenever possible.

Clinical Correlations for the Reconstructive Urologist​

  • Testicular torsion. A surgical emergency: urgent exploration is required, ideally within 4–6 hours, but later presentation is not a reason to withhold assessment. An apparently viable testis can later atrophy. Persistent arterial flow on Doppler does not exclude torsion, and imaging must not delay exploration. Manual detorsion may be attempted while awaiting surgery but does not replace exploration; contralateral fixation is commonly performed at that operation, with perinatal cases assessed separately.[25]
  • Cryptorchidism and orchiopexy. Undescended testes carry increased fertility and tumor risks; timely specialist management is recommended. A low-lying palpable testis may be approached inguinally or scrotally; a high intra-abdominal testis may require a staged procedure, including Fowler–Stephens or another technique selected for the anatomy.[29] Collateral flow is the rationale for Fowler–Stephens.[29]
  • Hydrocele and hernia. Communicating hydrocele and indirect inguinal hernia reflect a patent processus vaginalis. Non-communicating adult hydrocele is managed by Jaboulay (eversion), Lord (plication), or excisional technique, addressing the tunica-vaginalis parietal layer.
  • Varicocele. Dilation of the pampiniform plexus, usually left-sided. Isolated clinical right-sided or sudden-onset findings merit assessment for secondary causes, with imaging individualized to age and examination. Indications for repair depend on fertility context, symptoms and testicular development. For infertility, the EAU recommends repair for a clinical varicocele with abnormal semen parameters and otherwise unexplained couple infertility when the female partner has good ovarian reserve ; it recommends against repair of a subclinical varicocele or one with a normal semen analysis .[27] Microsurgical inguinal or subinguinal repair is an established option and may have lower recurrence and complication rates than non-microsurgical approaches.[27]
  • Testicular germ-cell tumor. Most postpubertal germ-cell tumors arise through a GCNIS-associated pathway. Radical inguinal orchiectomy with high cord control is standard for suspected cancer; avoid a scrotal approach because of local-recurrence risk. Para-aortic and interaortocaval drainage informs retroperitoneal staging and selected RPLND templates; nerve-sparing aims to preserve ejaculatory function where oncologically feasible.[26]
  • Fournier's gangrene. Necrotizing fasciitis of the dartos / Scarpa's / Colles' plane. Start broad-spectrum intravenous antibiotics on presentation and perform urgent, repeated wide debridement within 24 hours .[41] Urinary and fecal diversion as needed; testes, cord, and glans penis usually preserved. Reconstruction later with split-thickness grafts, fasciocutaneous flaps, or muscle flaps (gracilis) depending on defect.
  • Sperm retrieval. MESA and PESA are used for obstructive azoospermia (proximal ducts dilated with mature sperm), TESE for non-obstructive azoospermia (focal spermatogenesis), and micro-TESE (operating microscope to identify dilated opaque seminiferous tubules containing active spermatogenesis) is widely preferred for non-obstructive azoospermia.
  • Vasectomy and reversal. Vas occlusion techniques vary; a post-vasectomy semen analysis, not ejaculation count, establishes clearance before contraception is stopped.[30] Vasovasostomy or vasoepididymostomy is selected from operative findings and fertility goals. Longer obstructive interval can increase the chance that epididymal reconstruction is needed.
  • Testicular prosthesis. Offered at the time of orchiectomy or later (EAU 2026 Strong recommendation to offer it to all patients undergoing orchidectomy); silicone implant in the scrotal compartment.[26] Counsel about size options, palpation, and the risk of infection or extrusion.
  • Scrotal reconstruction. After Fournier's, penile cancer en bloc, or burn or avulsion. Options progress from primary closure or split-thickness graft to local fasciocutaneous flaps to musculocutaneous flaps (gracilis, medial thigh). The testes can be temporized in medial-thigh pouches if the scrotum is not immediately reconstructable, although a 2024 narrative review notes concerns about thermoregulation, pain and psychological impact.[42]
  • Chronic orchialgia. Medical management first (NSAIDs, neuropathic agents, pelvic-floor PT). AUA 2025 permits microsurgical spermatic-cord denervation for chronic scrotal content pain, especially after a favorable diagnostic cord block .[37] Denervation ligates cord autonomic fibers while preserving vas, testicular and deferential arteries, and lymphatics. The operation has been described through a 3–5 cm subinguinal incision centered over the external ring, using the operating microscope to strip a short vasal segment of investing fibroareolar tissue while preserving the deferential artery and lymphatics; in a patient with a prior vasectomy, the vas is divided again to interrupt neural tissue carried in or on it.[34] In two single-center series of men with a positive diagnostic spermatic-cord block, complete pain relief was reported in 67/95 testicular units (71%), with partial relief in 17/95 (18%) and unchanged pain in 11/95 (12%) among 79 men (mean follow-up 20.3 months, range 1–102 months)[35]; the second series reported complete pain relief in 34/35 patients (97%; mean follow-up 31.5 months)[36]. In the 79-man series, testicular atrophy without hypogonadism occurred in two patients, hydrocele in two, superficial wound infection in two, incisional hematoma in one, and seroma in one.[35] When pain and tenderness are focal to the epididymis, epididymectomy is an option after conservative treatment fails , with dissection kept close to the epididymis to protect testicular perfusion.[34][37] See Chronic Scrotal Content Pain and Microdenervation of the Spermatic Cord.
  • Referred pain, the crossovers. Testicular pathology refers to the flank via T10–T11; ureteric pathology refers to the scrotum and groin via the same dermatomes. A patient with acute flank and testicular pain needs both ureter and testis evaluated.

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